About The Book
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha. Buddhism is a tradition that focuses on personal spiritual development. Buddhists strive for a deep insight into the true nature of life and do not
worship gods or deities. Buddhism is open to traditions and customs provided they are not harmful to the welfare of others. The Buddha advised us not to believe in anything simply because it is the traditional custom. However, we are not advised to suddenly do away with all traditions. Buddhist art refers to the rich and diverse representations of religious images, sculpture, dance, visual mythology, and symbols deriving from the various Buddhist communities found around the world. Buddhist art exhibits distinctive forms and characteristics reflecting the diverse cultures and countries in which it has spread. This comprehensive book on Buddhism is a great gift for all interested in the studies of Buddhism.
Preface
the Buddhism is a religion and philosophy that developed from the teachings of the Buddha (Sanskrit: “Awakened One”), a teacher who lived in northern India between the mid-6th and mid-4th centuries bce (before the Common Era). Spreading from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social life of Asia, and, beginning in begning 20th century, it spread to to the West. Buddhism arose in northeastern. India sometime between the late 6th century and the early 4th century bce, a period of great social change and intense religious activity. There is disagreement among scholars about the dates of the Buddha’s birth and death. In the centuries following the founder’s death, Buddhism developed in two directions represented by two different groups. One was called the Hinayana (Sanskrit: “Lesser Vehicle”), a term given to it by its Buddhist opponents. This more conservative group, which included what is now called the Theravada (Pali: “Way of the Elders”) community, compiled versions of the Buddha’s teachings that had been preserved in collections called the Sutta Pitaka and the Vinaya Pitaka and retained them as normative. The other major group, which calls itself the Mahayana (Sanskrit: “Greater Vehicle”), recognized the authority of other teachings that, from the group’s point of view, made salvation available to a greater number of people. These supposedly more advanced teachings were expressed in sutras that the Buddha purportedly made available only his more advanced discip Buddhist art refers to the rich and diverse representations of religious images, sculpture, dance, visual mythology, and symbols deriving from the various Buddhist communities found around the world. Buddhist art exhibits distinctive forms and characteristics. reflecting the diverse cultures and countries in which it has spread. Early Buddhist art emerged in India and Sri Lanka following the death of Gautama Buddha (563 B.C.E. to 483 B.C.E.). Buddhist culture is perennial and so is as fresh today as it was in the Buddha’s time 2500
Introduction to Buddhist Art and Culture
Culture of Buddhism
Buddhist culture is exemplified through Buddhist art, Buddhist architecture, Buddhist music and Buddhist cuisine. As Buddhism expanded from the Indian subcontinent it adopted artistic and cultural elements of host countries in other parts of Asia.
Features of Buddhist Culture
Buddhist Economics: Economics or the way in which work life is organized and the demands of production are met form an integral part of any culture. Buddhist economics forms an integral part of the Buddhist culture. Buddhist Economics does not work to maximise consumption but human well-being, which lies in a simple, purposeful and dutiful life, in which rightful livelihood is earned. Human beings must remain true to their heritage and avoid materialistic pursuit. Mechanical and redundant work that deprives the soul of meaningful pursuit is looked down upon, while too much leisure also is not approved of. Women becoming part of the active workforce is considered failure of the economic system, as women have to leave looking after the children to indulge in economic way-fare, while the children are untended for.
Buddhism and Healthcare: For Buddhism, mental health is of supreme importance and individuals must strive towards improving this by practicing non-violence and refraining from sexual misconduct and lying. However, Buddhist traditions do acknowledge physical ill- being. Pain and suffering are inevitable like death, for which taking any form of medication are not prohibited. The medicines taken should not be intoxicating or affect the clarity of mind any way. Any physical
The arts of China, Korea and Japan adopted Greco-Buddhist artistic influences, but tended to add many local elements as well. What remains most readily identifiable from Greco-Buddhist art are: • The general idealistic realism of the figures reminiscent of Greek art.
Clothing elements with elaborate Greek-style folds.
The curly hairstyle characteristic of the Mediterranean.
In some Buddhist representations, hovering winged figures holding a wreath.
• Greek sculptural elements such as vines and floral scrolls. China: Greco-Buddhist artistic elements can be traced in Chinese Buddhist art, with several local and temporal variations depending on the character of the various dynasties that adopted the Buddhist faith. Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on & quot;money trees", dated circa AD 200, in typical Gandharan style: "That the imported images accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is strongly suggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on this "money tree" Buddha as the high ushnisha, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetrically looped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the arms."
Figure: Northern Wei Buddha Maitreya,
Some Northern Wei statues can be quite reminiscent of Gandharan standing Buddha, although in a slightly more symbolic style. The
general attitude and rendering of the dress however remain. Other, like Northern Qi Dynasty statues also maintain the general Greco- Buddhist style, but with less realism and stronger symbolic elements.Some Eastern Wei statues display Buddhas with elaborate Greek- style
robe foldings, and surmounted by flying figures holding a wreath.
Japan: In Japan, Buddhist art started to develop as the country converted to Buddhism in AD 548. Some tiles from the Asuka period, the first period following the conversion of the country to Buddhism, display a strikingly classical style, with ample Hellenistic dress and realistically rendered body shape characteristic of Greco-Buddhist art.
Figure: The Buddha, Asuka period, 7th century.
Other works of art incorporated a variety of Chinese and Korean influences, so that Japanese Buddhist became extremely varied in its expression. Many elements of Greco-Buddhist art remain to this day however, such as the Hercules inspiration behind the Nio guardian
deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, or representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in Kamakura.
Figure: Iconographical evolution of the Wind God. Left: Greek wind god from Hadda, 2nd century. Middle: wind god from Kizil, Tarim Basin, 7th century. Right: Japanese wind god Fujin, 17th century.
views, and have difficulty concentrating their minds. For such living beings disturbed by the 84000 moving paths of their hearts, I will widely speak the 84000 Dharmas, each Dharma treats one of the disturbances. For the living beings among them who seek the unsurpassed Mahayana, I will explain in full the six Paramitas, including the Dana (giving) Paramita unto Prajna Paramita. For the living beings among them who seek the Voice-Hearers' Vehicle or the Conditional-Awakeners' Vehicle but have not planted virtuous roots and wish to learn from the Buddhas, I will make them first take refuge in the three treasures, and then practice the six Paramitas.
For those who enjoy killing, I will make them stop killing; for those who commit crimes due to their greed, I will make them not to steal; for those who commit sexual misconducts, I will make them keep away from such immoral behaviours; for those who deliberately slander each others, I will make them not to slander; for those who enjoy inebriation, I will make them not to drink alcohol. For the living beings with such five illnesses, I will make them keep the five precepts of Upasaka (Lay-persons).
For those living beings who do not like any virtuous Dharmas, I wish that I can make them keep the eight precepts for at least one day and one night.
For those who have few virtuous roots and slightly enjoy virtuous Dharmas, I will make them get closer to my Dharmas, become monks, keep the ten precepts, and stay in the Brahma-practice.
For those who desire virtuous Dharmas, I will make them keep the Complete Precepts of virtuous Dharmas, and all stay in the Brahma-practice.
For such living beings who commit the sins leading to uninterrupted hells and who lose control of their minds, I shall speak Dharmas for them using various words, sentences, languages, and supernatural manifestations. I will reveal to them the five skandhas(*), the eighteen realms (astadasa-dhatavah)(*), the twelve loci(*), and the Dharmas on impermanence, sufferings, emptiness, and no-self, to make them stay in the virtuous, peaceful, stable, wonderful, and tranquil city of Nirvana.
*The five skandhas:
1. form-matter in general;
The Dharma Common to the Five Vehicles
2. feeling-receptive or sensory function;
3. perception-images that surface in the mind;
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4. impulse-will, intention, or the mental function that accounts for craving. The power of formation potential.
5. consciousness-the cognitive, or discriminating function. Knowing through discrimination.
* The eighteen realms:
The eighteen compositional elements of human existence, including the six roots [six sense faculties], the six defilements [their six objects], and the six consciousnesses.
*The six roots are:
Eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
*The six defilements are:
Forms/phenomena, sound, smell, flavor, touch, and things. *The six consciousnesses are:
Eye consciousnesses, ear consciousnesses, nose consciousnesses, tongue consciousnesses, body consciousnesses, and mind consciousnesses.)
(*The twelve loci: the six roots and the six defilements)
I will also speak such Dharmas for the fourfold assembly that consists of Bhiksus (monks), Bhiksunis (nuns), Upasakas (laymen), and Upasikas (laywomen).
For those who like to hear theories, I will speak the theories of correct Dharmas; for those who seek the liberation, I will speak the theories on the emptiness; for those who do not like virtuous dharmas, I will persuade them to do good deeds; for those who like virtuous
Dharmas, I will tell them to recite and study Dharmas, and expound the emptiness, Samadhis, and the true liberation.
For each of such living beings, I will walk hundreds of thousands of Yojanas without using supernatural powers, to reveal to him the countless and various expedient means [to the liberation]; and in order to make him understand the meanings of my words, I will manifest various supernatural transformations or even appear as entering Nirvana – I will never be tired of doing so.
Bhagavan, by the power of Samadhi, I will hide my fifth part of lifespan and enter into Nirvana, and at that time, I will shatter my
An Empty Throne lies in the concept of an important element of mysticism. This symbol was also symbolizing the royalty of Siddharta Gautama.
Begging Bowl The begging bowl is the simplest but one of the most important objects in the daily lives of Buddhist monks. The begging bowl has been the primary symbol of the chosen life of the Buddhist monk.
The Lion – is one of Buddhisms most important symbols. The lion is the symbol of royalty that symbolized what the Buddha was a part of before attaining enlightenment. It is also the power of the Buddha & teaching and is quite often compared with the roar of a lion.
The Eight Auspicious Symbols – or (Ashtamangala) are a sacred suite of Eight Auspicious Signs endemic to a number of Dharmic Traditions such as Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. The symbols or symbolic attributes are yidam and teaching tools. Not only do these attributes, these energetic signatures, point to qualities of enlightened mindstream, but they are the investiture that ornaments these enlightened qualities. Many cultural enumerations and variations of the Ashtamangala are extant. Groupings of eight auspicious symbols were originally used in India at ceremonies such as an inauguration or coronation of a king. An early grouping of symbols included: throne, swastika, handprint, hooked knot, the vase of jewels, water libation flask, pair of fishes, lidded bowl. In Buddhism, these eight symbols of good fortune represent the offerings made by the gods to Shakyamuni Buddha immediately after he gained enlightenment.
The Umbrella or parasol (chhatra) embodies notions of wealth or royalty, for one had to be rich enough to possess such an item, and further, to have someone carry it. It points to the "royal ease" and power experienced in the Buddhist life of detachment.
The two fishes originally represented the two main sacred rivers of India – the Ganges and Yamuna. These rivers are associated with the lunar and solar channels which originate in the nostrils and carry the alternating rhythms of breath or prana. They have religious significance in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist traditions but also in
monument to the Buddha is a thick slab of polished grey sandstone with Mauryan polish
The sculpted decorations on the Diamond Throne clearly echoe the decorations found on the Pillars of Ashoka. The Diamond Throne has a decorative band made of honeysuckles and geese, which can also be found on several of the Pillars of Ashoka, such as the Rampurva capitals or the Sanchi capital. The geese (hamsa) in particular are a very recurrent symbol on the pillars of Ashoka, and may refer to the devotees flocking to the faith. The same throne is also illustrated in later reliefs from Bharhut, dated to circa 100 BCE.
Similar Pillars
The 6th century pillar at the tomb of Xiao Jing, or Emperor Jing of Western Liang, is similar to the Ashoka pillar.
Stupa
Figure: Stupa in Gotemba, Shizuoka, Japan.
A stûpa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics that is used as a place of meditation. A related architectural term is a chaitya, which is a prayer hall or temple containing a stupa.
In Buddhism, circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual and devotional practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them.
Stupas may have originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which œeramaGas were buried in a seated position called chaitya.
Some authors have suggested that stupas were derived from a wider cultural tradition from the Mediterranean to the Indus valley, and can be related to the conical mounds on circular bases from the 8th century BCE that can be found in Phrygia (tomb of Midas, 8th c. BCE), Lydia (such as the tomb of Alyattes, 6th c. BCE), or in Phoenicia (tombs of Amrit, 5th c. BCE).
Mounds for the relics of the Buddha (5th century): Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, started to be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas, in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar, and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built.
Figure: The Piprahwa stupa is one of the earliest surviving stupas.
Guard rails consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping-became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.
The role of monastic orders in Indian and now also Western society has to some extent been adapted over the years in accordance with ever-changing social structures.
Buddhist Monks
A bhikkhu is an ordained male monastic in Buddhism. Male and female monastics ("nun", bhikkhuni, Sanskrit bhikcuGi) are members of the Buddhist community.
Figure: Buddhist monks in Thailand
The lives of all Buddhist monastics are governed by a set of rules called the prâtimokca or pâtimokkha. Their lifestyles are shaped to support their spiritual practice: to live a simple and meditative life and attain nirvana.
A person under the age of 20 cannot be ordained as a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni but can be ordained as a úrâmaGera or úrâmaGçrî.
Definition: Bhikkhu literally means "beggar" or "one who lives by alms". The historical Buddha, Prince Siddhartha, having abandoned a life of pleasure and status, lived as an alms mendicant as part of his œramaGa lifestyle. Those of his more serious students who renounced their lives as householders and came to study full-time under his supervision also adopted this lifestyle. These full-time student members of the sangha became the community of ordained monastics who wandered from town to city throughout the year, living off alms and stopping in one place only for the Vassa, the rainy months of the
monsoon season.